African Elites Betrayed Their Own: The True Facilitators of the Transatlantic Slave Trade

by – L. Richardson

The African Elites’ Betrayal of their own people, a revelation that may shock many, played a pivotal role in facilitating the horrors of the Transatlantic Slave Trade. 1 2 3 4 Contrary to common belief, capturing and sending slaves abroad required not just European approval but also the active aid and complicity of African Elites and Rulers. 2 4 These African Elites Undermining Societies enabled and perpetuated this inhumane trade through trade agreements, economic motivations, and political maneuverings that undermined their own societies for personal gain. 1 2 3

The Transatlantic Slave Trade Realities were made possible by the active involvement of African Agency in Slave Trade. It was not a passive role, but one where African Elites negotiated terms, provided logistical support, and capitalized on the financial gains from this brutal commerce. 2 3 4 This article explores the pivotal yet oft-ignored role of African Empires’ Complicity, unraveling how economic interests, political rivalries, and cultural factors drove African Elites’ Betrayal that enabled one of the darkest chapters of human history.

The Role of African Elites in the Transatlantic Slave Trade

Historical context of the African elite:

Slavery was prevalent in many West and Central African societies before and during the Transatlantic Slave Trade [20]. 1 African empires, nations, or kinship groups regularly enslaved captives from rival groups, viewing them as outsiders. 1 The rulers of these slaveholding societies exerted power over captives as prisoners of war for labor, to expand their kinship group or influence, or for economic gain through trade. 1 West and Central African elites and royalty relied on their kinship group, including slaves, to secure and maintain their wealth and status by controlling the products of their labor [20]. 1

In contrast, before the Transatlantic Trade, European elites focused on owning land as private property to secure wealth rather than owning laborers as chattel property [20]. 1 In rural African regions, land was often open for cultivation. Hence, controlling labor was a greater priority for elites to guarantee profits from products cultivated by laborers. 1 This different emphasis on controlling labor shaped the role of slavery in these regions before the Transatlantic Trade [20]. 1

Mechanisms of involvement and participation:

African elites and rulers from slaveholding societies like the Dahomey and Ashanti empires (in present-day Benin and Ghana) accumulated immense wealth and power by trading their fellow Africans through slave ports like Ouidah and Elmina. 5 When Europeans initiated trade relationships with West Africans in the mid-15th century, they encountered well-established political organizations and commercial networks, relying heavily on African rulers and mercantile classes to access desired commodities. 5

Domestic slave ownership and trade in West Africa preceded the Atlantic Slave Trade’s origins in the late 15th century. 5 Since most West African societies did not recognize private land ownership, slaves functioned as one of the only profitable means of production individuals could own, with wealth expressed in terms of dependent people. 5 Military, political, and religious authorities in West Africa determined who controlled access to the Atlantic Slave Trade. Some African elites exploited this control to enslave and sell other Africans to European traders for profit [21]. 5

Europeans generally relied on a network of African rulers and traders to capture and bring enslaved Africans from various regions to slave castles on the West and Central African coast [22]. 2 Scholars argue that Europeans took advantage of pre-existing slave trade systems in Africa to obtain labor for plantation economies in the Americas. 2 As diverse political and social structures in West and Central Africa often conflicted over internal politics and economic expansion, frequent conflicts produced captives who could circulate in the local and Transatlantic Slave Trade. 2

Europeans also influenced African traders and leaders to provide enslaved Africans by encouraging consumer demands for European goods, forming military alliances to increase captives, and shifting disembarkation points along the coast to follow African military conflicts. 2 In areas where slavery was not prevalent, European demand often expanded the institution and trade, though European traders generally worked within terms set by African rulers and traders negotiating their own interests [22]. 2

Economic Motivations Behind Betrayal

The African elites’ complicity in the Transatlantic Slave Trade was primarily driven by economic motivations, and the pursuit of personal wealth. 6 1 Human beings are inherently selfish. Slavery allowed these elites to exploit others for free labor, reducing costs and boosting their economies. 6 Slaves represented the cheapest labor available, making the trade highly lucrative for those involved. 6

Examination of financial incentives:

The demand for slaves from Europeans was immense, and African merchants and rulers recognized the potential for significant financial gains. 7 They adjusted their prices accordingly, demanding valuable commodities such as cowry shells, rum, tobacco, guns, iron bars, axes, knives, and textiles in exchange for enslaved Africans. 7 These goods not only enhanced the prestige of the African elites but also provided them with a military advantage over their rivals. 7

A typical slave-trading venture involved European ship captains obtaining the necessary permissions and paying fees to their governments to engage in the trade. 7 They would then sail to the African coast, offering “gifts” or paying “dues” to local African traders and kings to secure the opportunity to trade with them. 7 The captains would purchase as many slaves as the African merchants had available, continuing this process along the coastline until they had acquired their desired number of enslaved individuals. 7

Comparison with other economic activities:

While various forms of slavery and coerced labor existed worldwide before the Transatlantic Slave Trade, the scale, legal status, and racial definitions of this trade were unprecedented. 1 In contrast to European elites who focused on owning land as private property, West and Central African elites prioritized controlling labor to secure wealth and status. 1 Slaves were one of the few profitable means of production that individuals could own in societies where private land ownership was not recognized. 5

The economic legacy of the Transatlantic Slave Trade, including the generational wealth and founding of industries that continue to thrive today, is often overlooked [23]. 4 Major cities and regions across the Americas, such as New England, Boston, New York City, the Mid-Atlantic, Virginia, Richmond, the Carolinas, Charleston, Savannah, the Deep South, and New Orleans, were shaped by the trafficking of African people [24]. Still, few have acknowledged their history of enslavement or its legacy. 4

Political Alliances and Rivalries

Europeans went to great lengths to influence African traders and leaders to provide enslaved Africans for the trans-Atlantic trade [22]. 2 They encouraged African consumer demands for European goods, formed military alliances to instigate fighting and increase the number of captives, and shifted the location of disembarkation points along the West and Central African coast to follow African military conflicts [22]. 2 In areas where slavery was not prevalent, European demand often expanded the presence of the institution and trade [22]. 2 However, European traders still generally worked within terms set by African rulers and traders, who negotiated their own interests in these trading and military alliances [22]. 2

Formation of alliances with European traders:

The political survival of ruling African elites was a significant factor behind their trade policy choices involving the Transatlantic Slave Trade. 8 Fearing economic crises that could threaten their survival and result in political crises, African governments dependent on revenue from slave exports entered into trade agreements with Europeans to guarantee prices for this essential commodity. 8 This amounted to a continuation of the colonial economic system and a neo-colonial relationship with Europeans at the expense of economic diversification in Africa. 8

For example, Côte d’Ivoire’s government under Houphouët-Boigny negotiated with the European Economic Community for a guaranteed price higher than the world market price for cocoa within the Yaoundé Convention of 1963 framework [25]. 8 This enabled the country to survive the decline in cocoa prices but perpetuated a neo-colonial economic system reliant on commodity exports. 8

Impact on inter-African political dynamics:

Across African regimes, leaders integrated various elites and interests to hold onto power by redistributing material and symbolic rewards from the center. 9 They strengthened ties with their regional and political constituencies by appointing diverse cabinet ministers to maximize community buy-in and limit grievances over exclusivity. 9 10

Cabinet positions were especially relevant, as ministers were expected to speak for the interests of their ethnic groups and channel resources to them. 9 However, such representation did not necessarily equate to balanced power-sharing between ministers or proportional inclusion of all groups. 9

The internal politics of cabinets and the broader state political environment shaped leaders’ options in making ministerial appointments, dismissals, and reshuffles. 9 This resulted in a hierarchical composition of senior political positions prone to shifts in response to changing political dynamics. 9

Cultural Implications and Social Impact

Changes in traditional societal structures:

The Transatlantic Slave Trade had detrimental impacts on the institutional, social, and economic development of African societies. 11 There are numerous examples of the slave trades causing the deterioration of domestic legal institutions, weakening of states, and political and social fragmentation [26]. 11 The study by Nunn (2008) showed that the countries from which the most significant numbers of slaves were taken were also the areas that had the most underdeveloped political structures at the end of the 19th century, as well as being the countries that are the most ethnically fragmented today [26]. 11

Whatley and Gillezeau (2011) and Whatley (2014) combined slave shipping records with ethnographic data and estimated the relationship between slave shipments and institutional quality and ethnic diversity in the locations close to the ports of shipment [26]. 11 Their analysis consistent with Nunn (2008) and Green (2013), indicates that the slave trades resulted in greater ethnic fractionalization [26]. 11 Additionally, their study also shows that the slave trades led to a deterioration of local ethnic institutions, measured in the late pre-colonial period [26]. 11

Impact on community and lineage:

The Transatlantic Slave Trade had a profound impact on the social fabric of African communities [27]. Nunn and Wantchekon (2011) found that the slave trade negatively affected domestic institutions and governance, resulting in less trust today. 11 Furthermore, the slave trade directly reduced the extent to which individuals were inherently trusting of others. 11

The disproportionate capture and enslavement of men led to a shortage of men and skewed sex ratios within many parts of Africa, resulting in a long-term increase in the prevalence of polygyny (the practice of men having multiple wives). 11 This finding is supported by the research of Edlund and Ku (2011), Dalton and Leung (2014), and Bertocchi and Dimico (2015). 11

Moreover, Teso’s (2016) research shows that those parts of Africa that experienced the trans-Atlantic slave trade most severely have higher rates of female labor force participation today [26]. 11 This can be attributed to the fact that a large percentage of the people taken captive in Africa were women in their childbearing years and young men who usually would have been starting families [28]. 12 The European slavers usually left behind persons who were elderly, disabled, or otherwise dependent—groups who were least able to contribute to the economic health of their societies [28]. 12

Case Studies of Notable African Kingdoms

Kanem-Bornu Empire:

The Kanem-Bornu Empire, situated in Central Sudan, was a significant regional power that facilitated the trans-Saharan slave trade. 13 Established around 900 CE, the empire initially controlled trade routes across the Sahara Desert. 13 Under Mai Dunama II’s reign in the 13th century, Kanem-Bornu reached its zenith, commanding a formidable cavalry force of 40,000 and extending control over trade routes as far as Libya. 13

The prosperity of Kanem-Bornu was inextricably linked to the trans-Saharan trade of enslaved Africans destined for North African and Atlantic markets. 13 By the late 15th century, the empire traded approximately 5,000 captives annually. 13 Adopting firearms and forging alliances with the Ottoman Empire enabled Kanem-Bornu to intensify slave raids against non-Muslim neighbors, exploiting the frontier of Islam in Central Sudan. 13 The empire’s strategic location and access to trade networks facilitated its complicity in the slave trade. 14

Ashanti Empire:

The Ashanti Empire, located in present-day Ghana, emerged as a formidable imperial power in West Africa during the 18th and 19th centuries. 15 Driven by the pursuit of political dominance, the Ashanti annexed neighboring states like Akyem, Kwawu, Denkyera, Akwamu, Wassa, Sefwi, Assin, Aowin, and Ga-Adangbe. 15

The organizational sophistication of the Ashanti Empire rivaled contemporaneous European states with a bureaucracy responsible for effective provincial administration. 15 From the beginning of the 18th century, the Ashanti supplied enslaved Africans to British and Dutch traders on the coast in exchange for firearms, facilitating their territorial expansion. 16

The philosophical attitude towards slavery in Ashanti society was that it was a natural, time-honored institution sanctioned by ancestral traditions and deities. 15 Slave procurement methods ranged from capturing victims of war to purchasing them in slave markets. 15 Slaves were crucial to the Ashanti economy, satisfying labor requirements in agriculture and industry. 15 The slave trade persisted in the Ashanti Empire until its abolition by the British in 1874. 15

Dahomey Kingdom:

The Kingdom of Dahomey, located in present-day Benin, rose to prominence during the Atlantic Slave Trade’s heyday in the 18th and 19th centuries. 17 18 Under King Ghezo’s rule (1818-1858), Dahomey’s power peaked, aided by the financial and military assistance of Brazilian slave trader Francisco Félix de Sousa. 17

Dahomey became a significant center of the Atlantic Slave Trade, controlling coastal cities like Allada and Whydah until the British imposed a naval blockade in 1851-1852, forcing Ghezo to accept a treaty ending the export of enslaved Africans. 17 The kingdom’s elites amassed immense wealth through trade, with de Sousa appointed as the powerful “viceroy of trade” in Whydah. 17

Dahomey’s political and economic hierarchies remained influential in post-independence Benin, with descendants of the royal lineage and de Sousa retaining significant political power. 17 The kingdom’s complicity in the slave trade exemplified how African elites capitalized on brutal commerce for personal gain. 17

Modern Perspectives and Historical Reassessment

Modern scholarly debates:

Much of modern history portrays the African slave trade as purely a European venture, overlooking the pivotal role played by African elites in enabling and perpetuating this brutal commerce. 4 However, recent scholarly debates challenge this narrative, highlighting the complicity of African rulers and traders in capturing and supplying enslaved Africans to European markets. 4

Scholars argue that the economic legacy of the Transatlantic Slave Trade, including the generational wealth and founding of industries that continue to thrive today, is not well understood. 4 Major cities and regions across the Americas, such as New England, Boston, New York City, the Mid-Atlantic, Virginia, Richmond, the Carolinas, Charleston, Savannah, the Deep South, and New Orleans, were shaped by the trafficking of African people [24]. Still, few have acknowledged their history of enslavement or its legacy. 4

At a time when some believe discourse about uncomfortable histories should be avoided, scholars emphasize the importance of honest engagement with the past to create a healthy and just future. 4 This report serves as a first step in helping people understand the scope and scale of the devastation created by slavery in America and the Transatlantic Slave Trade’s influence on contemporary issues, initiating more meaningful and truthful conversations about addressing its legacy [24]. 4

Re-evaluating sources and narratives:

In countries like Benin, where the Dahomey Kingdom was a major center of the Atlantic Slave Trade, modern scholars are battling societal unwillingness to interrogate this messy past. 19 As Benin builds new museums dedicated to the slave trade, debates arise over how the country will portray its role, particularly regarding figures like Francisco Félix de Sousa, the powerful “viceroy of trade” in Whydah who amassed immense wealth through the trade. 19

Some members of de Sousa’s family vehemently oppose any mention of him as a slave merchant in the new Ouidah museum, citing concerns over the family’s reputation and a desire to avoid being associated with this “dirty thing.” 19 However, scholars argue for an honest reckoning with historical figures’ involvement in the slave trade, challenging long-held narratives that obscure or downplay the complicity of African elites. 19

The Smithsonian Institution has signed a memorandum of understanding to assist Benin in developing these new museums [29]. However, details have yet to be worked out. 19 This collaboration highlights the growing recognition of the need to re-evaluate historical sources and narratives, shedding light on the often-overlooked role of African elites in enabling the Transatlantic Slave Trade.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the Transatlantic Slave Trade was a devastating chapter in human history, facilitated by the complicity of both European traders and African elites. While the economic motivations and pursuit of wealth played a significant role, the actions of African rulers and merchants had far-reaching consequences, undermining traditional societal structures and perpetuating immense human suffering. As we reflect on this dark period, it is crucial to acknowledge the complex historical realities and engage in honest discourse to address the lasting impacts and promote healing and justice.

Moving forward, it is essential to confront complex histories with nuance and objectivity. Oversimplifying narratives or promoting biased viewpoints hinders our ability to learn from the past and create a more equitable future. We can deepen our understanding, challenge long-held assumptions, and work toward reconciliation and progress for all humanity by fostering open and respectful dialogues.

FAQs

1. What impact did the Atlantic slave trade have on enslaved Africans?

The Atlantic slave trade severely hindered economic and agricultural development in western Africa due to depopulation and an ongoing fear of being captured. A significant number of those captured were women of childbearing age and young men who would have been forming families under normal circumstances, thereby affecting the social structure profoundly.

2. How did African leaders contribute to the slave trade?

In West Africa, control over military, political, and religious spheres was crucial in determining who could engage in the Atlantic slave trade. Some African elites, notably from the Dahomey and Ashanti empires, exploited this control to profit by enslaving and trading their fellow Africans to European traders.

3. Which African tribes participated in the transatlantic slave trade?

Several African nations and tribes were involved in the slave trade, including the Bono State, the Ashanti from present-day Ghana, and the Yoruba from present-day Nigeria. Additionally, groups like the Imbangala of Angola and the Nyamwezi of Tanzania acted as intermediaries or raiders, attacking other African states to capture people and sell them into slavery.

4. In what ways did African merchants facilitate the Atlantic slave trade?

African merchants and rulers quickly engaged with Portuguese traders upon their arrival on the African coast, exchanging enslaved Africans for various commodities. This interaction leveraged existing African systems of slave trading, with Europeans providing a new means of transportation for slaves across the Atlantic to the Americas.